AFRICAN DIASPORA
BACHATA
Bachata, born in rural Dominican communities, blends Indigenous, African, and European elements. Suppressed under the Trujillo regime, it resurged after his fall and spread globally.
BOMBA Y PLENA
Bomba, created by enslaved Africans in 17th century Puerto Rico, and Plena, a 20th century Puerto Rican “newspaper insong,” reflect resistance, storytelling, and everyday life through music and dance.
BREAKING
Breaking was created by African-American and Latino youths in the Bronx borough of New York City in the early 1970’s. DJ Kool Herc noticed young people would go off on the dance floor, moving with more sporadic and dynamic energy, whenever the break of the tracks he was playing would come in. The “break” being the part of the song where all vocals and other instruments would drop out, only leaving the percussion section i.e. the drummers’ solo. Seeing this, Kool Herc started to play two copies of the same record, mixing between them on two turntables with a technique called the “Merry-Go-Round”. This was so that he could extend the break and the dancers would have more time to showcase their moves. This is what inspired the creation of the dance of “breaking”, so-called because the B-boys and B-girls would dance to the break of the track (Break dance is a misnomer).
CAPOEIRA
DRILL TEAM
FLAMENCO
Flamenco is an embodied expressive system integrating dance (baile), song (cante), and guitar (toque) into a unified cultural practice rooted in the Andalusian region of southern Spain. More
than a national art form, flamenco operates as a diasporic archive shaped by displacement, survival, and intercultural exchange. Its recognition as UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage affirms what practitioners embody: flamenco is a living historical consciousness transmitted through rhythm, voice, and movement.
At the core of flamenco’s kinetic language is baile, marked by upright yet grounded posture,
emotional intensity, and percussive clarity. Through zapateado, the dancer functions as a drummer, articulating complex rhythmic patterns via the heel (tacón), toe (punta), and ball of the
foot (planta). This use of the body as a percussive instrument situates flamenco alongside
African diasporic practices such as stepping and hip hop, where rhythm is internalized and
rendered through embodied sound. Braceo and floreo—sweeping arm pathways and intricate
hand articulations—extend the dancer’s expressive reach, echoing polycentric and polyrhythmic
movement logics found across Africanist aesthetics.
All flamenco performance is governed by compás, a cyclical rhythmic structure that functions
similarly to the beat, break, or cipher in hip hop and the synchronized pulse of stepping formations—serving as both constraint and generative force. While cante is widely regarded as
flamenco’s emotional core, its call-and-response dynamics, communal palmas, jaleo, and
improvisatory exchange mirror Black vernacular performance traditions.
Emerging from Roma (Gitano), Moorish, Jewish, and Andalusian lineages, flamenco embodies what African diasporic scholars recognize as blood memory: histories of marginalization
rendered audible and visible through rhythm. Like stepping and hip hop, flamenco transforms
social constraint into percussive resistance, positioning the dancing body as historian, instrument,
and site of collective becoming.
FOOTWORK
Chicago footwork, emerging around the turn of the millennium, is known for its high-tempo beats and intricate, syncopated drum patterns. A descendant of Chicago juke and ghetto house, footwork features rapid, fragmented rhythms.
GQ
Also known as Stepping, in some parts of Philadelphia it was known as iking, or Geek. G.Q. ‘s history begins in the early to mid 1960’s and is born from the popular Latin dance the Cha-cha. The Cha-cha was generally done to a four-four rhythm which set the foundation. The next generation of dancers (1970’s) developed their own unique style and because the style required you to wear a suit the style was named after Gentleman Quarterly Magazine. Although each G.Q. dancer/group displayed their own unique rhythm and style, all G.Q. dancers shared the same foundational movement vocabulary like Russian kick outs, half splits, sweeps, helicopters and more. The G.Q street dance style was popular from 1960’s-1980’s.
HIP-HOP
Hip-hop: Hip-hop dance is a culmination of popular social party dances from communities across the U.S. For example: the “A” Town Stomp (Atlanta, GA), Wu-Tang (Philadelphia, PA), Roof Top (New York, NY) and so on. In addition, Hip-hop dances may share the same name but are performed differently. For example: Philadelphia, New York and Chicago had a popular dance called the Smurf, however each dance displays a completely different movement aesthetic. Referred to as Hip-hop proper (Dr. Harris) these unique dances can also have different names but look exactly alike. Many continue to use “Hip-hop” as an umbrella by including other Street dance styles like Popping, Campbell Locking, or B-boying. These styles and more are not Hip-hop dances. Each Street dance style has its own unique history.
Freestyle Hip-hop: What is referred to as Hip-hop today, originally began as Freestyle Hip-hop which was created by Buddha Stretch of the Moptop Crew. Hip-hop dance today is a mix up of various social dances, styles and techniques done spontaneously with a stronger focus on isolated movement and gestures.
Studio Hip-hop: What is commonly referred to as Studio, Industry, or Commercial Hip-hop evolves from Freestyle Hip-hop and is often referred to as Hip-hop. This brand of Hip-hop is a combination of Jazz isolation, Gangster and B-boy hand gestures accompanied with postering of outlaws (thugs). In addition, this brand of Hip-hop displays literal movement, inspiring some to refer to the style as Lyrical Hip-hop. Considered a hybrid of Hip-hop dance, this dance style is popular amongst mainstream culture and not accepted as Hip-hop by its creators and pioneers.
HOUSE
The term “house” can be traced back to Chicago’s nightclub The Warehouse, located at 206 S. Jefferson St. The Warehouse was opened in 1977 by Robert “Robbie” Williams, who aimed to create an after-hours nightclub similar to New York’s “The Loft”. The Loft, opened in 1970 by David Mancuso, was intended to be a place for the misfits of the era, including the gay community, Black people, and Latinos who couldn’t afford high-end nightclubs and didn’t feel welcome. Mancuso, an orphan himself, was inspired by rent parties and wanted to make The Loft a safe space for his friends. These parties were kept underground to avoid the need for an alcohol license. The music from The Warehouse became popular thanks to New York DJ Frankie Knuckles. Invited by Robbie to play as the resident DJ, Knuckles recorded his DJ sets at The Warehouse on cassette tapes and distributed them for free. These cassettes were shared all over Chicago, leading people to ask record stores for music like they heard at The Warehouse. Over time, this got shortened to “house music.”
JITTING
Characterized by its fast footwork, it was created or inspired by the Detroit dance group Jitterbugs (1974), hence the name Jitting.
JOOKING
Originating in Memphis, Tennessee (1980) Jooking also known as Gangsta Walking, which evolved from Gangsta Walkin’, a strutting walk with a bounce, and is characterized by freestyle movements, hip hop swag, and intricate footwork.
LATIN BOOGALOO
Originated in Spanish Harlem, New York City, during the 1960s. A fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with R&B, soul, and rock; fuses mambo and salsa with contemporary popular social dance.
LATIN HUSTLE
“Latin Hustle comes out of the 1970s and started in New York City in the Bronx, Brooklyn and Queens. It was brought to Manhattan around 1971, ‘72, ‘73 by everyone who was doing it. It was just six steps at that time, and they added a syncopation which was really taken out of Mambo – that’s where the ball change comes from. Dancers started a six count with a syncopated step, and by 1975 it became three counts because they dropped the first three steps. It was counted “one two three four five six” and then they went to “one two three and four five six”. They dropped the “one two three” and then it became “and four five six” hence, “and one two three”.” (Billy Fajardo On the Evolution of Hustle)
LINDY HOP
The Lindy Hop is an African American dance born in Harlem in 1928. Popular during the swing era of
the late 1930s and early 1940s, it blends jazz, tap, breakaway, and Charleston and is considered a core
swing and jazz dance. Its hallmark step, the swingout, combines partnered and solo movement,
improvisation, and an eight-count structure derived from European partner dances.
Rooted in African American social dance, the Lindy evolved on Harlem floors like the Savoy Ballroom.
George “Shorty” Snowden and Mattie Purnell helped define the dance during a 1928 marathon,
rediscovering the breakaway and inspiring a new form that quickly reached contests, theaters, and
Broadway. Early innovators included Snowden, Big Bea, Leroy Jones, and later dancers such as Frankie
Manning, Norma Miller, Al Minns, and Pepsi Bethel. Aerials emerged in the mid-1930s and became a
hallmark of lindy hop performance.
By the late 1930s, Lindy Hop entered mainstream U.S. culture through touring troupes, Hollywood films,
and dance studios. Although taxes and changing musical tastes reduced social dancing after World War
II, Black dancers and dedicated enthusiasts kept the form alive.
A major revival began in the 1980s, led by dancers in New York, California, the U.K., and Sweden, who
sought out original Savoy dancers and helped reestablish the dance worldwide. Since the 1990s, lindy hop
has thrived through international camps, competitions, exchanges, films, and a swing music revival.
Today, lindy hop is a vibrant global social, performance, and competitive dance, celebrated for its
improvisation, individual style, and deep African American cultural roots.
MAJORETTE
MAMBO
Mambo, influenced by Haitian culture, emerged in Cuba and gained international prominence when popularized by Pérez Prado in 1943, eventually giving rise to the Cha Cha Cha.
MERENGUE
Merengue, claimed by both Haiti and the Dominican Republic, carries origin legends — each invoking a limping figure whose gait shaped the dance.
RUMBA
Rumba, introduced to U.S. audiences in the early 20th
century, is a sensual expression of romantic pursuit through rhythmic partner interplay.
Salsa
Salsa fuses Cuban and Puerto Rican music with New York jazz; its name, meaning “sauce,” reflects its cultural mix. Initially, drummers followed dancers in street gatherings, a dynamic later reversed in modern practice.
STEPPING
Stepping, or step-dancing, is an African diasporic percussive dance practice in which the body
functions as both instrument and archive. Through weighted footfalls, articulated hand claps,
vocalization, chanting, and spoken word, steppers generate complex rhythmic compositions that are sonic, kinetic, and communal. While stepping may be performed solo, its fullest expression
emerges through collective execution, often in tightly organized formations that signal discipline,
unity, and shared identity.
As a syncretic form, stepping repurposes movement vocabularies drawn from African and
Caribbean dance traditions, tap, marching drills, gymnastics, breakdance, and Black social
dances. Tempo and rhythmic density are shaped by collective intention, while stunts and props
canes, rhythm sticks, fire, or blindfolds—expand both the percussive and symbolic register.
Notably, stepping’s emphasis on syncopated rhythms, call-and-response, and performative
storytelling resonates with elements of hip hop and street dance, reflecting a continuum of Black
vernacular movement practices that foreground improvisation, community engagement, and
embodied rhythm.
The genealogy of stepping is inseparable from the cultural suppression experienced under
enslavement. Drumming once served as ritual and clandestine communication among enslaved
Africans. Following the 1739 Stono Rebellion, colonial bans displaced rhythm into the body,
catalyzing the emergence of embodied percussive practices. By the early twentieth century,
Black Greek Letter Organizations formalized stepping as a ritualized performance practice,
integrating chants, songs, and full-bodied movement to honor lineage, collective pride, and
intergenerational transmission.
Stepping remains an embodied historiography, testifying to Black resilience, communal memory,
and the transformation of constraint into kinetic innovation—linking historical practices to
contemporary urban and street dance cultures worldwide.
SWING
Swing dance is a family of social dances that developed alongside swing-style jazz music from the 1920s
to 1940s, though many of its forms predate the swing era. Hundreds of variations emerged, but key styles
that remain today include Charleston, Balboa, Lindy Hop, Collegiate Shag, and West Coast Swing. The
best-known is the Lindy Hop, created in Harlem in the early 1930s, rooted in African American
vernacular dance and defined by improvisation, an eight-count swingout, and energetic movement. The
term swing dance became common only in the late 20th century; historically, swing referred to the music
itself. Jitterbug was often used for any swing dance, particularly the six-count form later known as East
Coast Swing. Early forms include: Balboa, a fast, closed-position dance from Southern California, with a
compact style suited to crowded dance floors; Bal-Swing adds turns, dips, and open-position variations;
Charleston, danced solo or partnered in various positions, thriving at fast tempos; Collegiate Shag, a
high-energy up-tempo dance originating in the Carolinas; Lindy Hop, which spread nationally and
internationally through touring performance troupes. Later forms (late 1930s–40s) include: the Big
Apple; Little Apple; and St. Louis Shag, each adding regional flavor. Swing also inspired many
derivatives: Boogie-woogie, Jive, Modern Jive, Carolina Shag, West Coast Swing, Rock and Roll,
Hand Dancing, and others, each shaped by local music and stylistic evolution. Swing dancing remains
popular worldwide in social scenes, clubs, and competitions. Events may feature choreographed
(Showcase, Classic) or improvised (Strictly Swing, Jack-and-Jill) formats, judged on timing, technique,
teamwork, and showmanship.
TAP + HOOFING
Tap dance is a distinctly American art form that emerged in the 19th century through the cultural blending
of West African percussive traditions with the step, jig, and clog dances of Irish, English, and Scottish
immigrants. Enslaved Africans, barred from using drums, sustained rhythm through body percussion,
juba dancing, and intricate footwork; European immigrants contributed sharp, rapid steps. These
influences converged in places like New York’s Five Points district, producing early tap—then known as
“jigging”—which soon appeared in minstrel shows. Although such shows trafficked in racist caricatures,
Black dancers, most notably Master Juba, profoundly shaped the evolving form. Tap thrived in vaudeville
and soon found its way onto Broadway and into Hollywood during the early 20th century, especially after
metal taps were added to shoes in the 1920s. Its “Golden Age” (1930s–1950s) showcased artists such as
Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, whose upright, deceptively simple clarity and legendary stair dance became
defining images of tap. Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers introduced a refined, ballroom-inflected elegance,
Gene Kelly fused tap with ballet and athleticism, and the Nicholas Brothers dazzled with acrobatic “flash
dancing” that blended tap, jazz, and ballet. Though often framed as male-dominated, the form was equally
shaped by women like Eleanor Powell—celebrated for her explosive precision—and Jeni LeGon, a
pioneering African American soloist who broadened tap’s expressive range while challenging racial and
gender barriers. Deeply rooted in African American rhythmic practices, hoofing (or rhythm tap)
emphasized improvisation, grounded movement, and layered musicality, later championed by John
Bubbles, Gregory Hines, and Savion Glover. After a mid-century decline, tap experienced a late 20th
century resurgence, and today it continues to evolve worldwide, balancing theatrical flair with rhythm-
driven innovation.